Research 3: Pneumoencephalography
In chapter 33, when we learn about the complete atrocities done to patients at Crownsville to Elise, the term pneumoencephalography is mentioned on page 276. From Wikipedia, I received a very straightforward definition of what it was: "...Pneumoencephalography [is a] technique of diagnostic radiology that produces X-ray films of the head after injection of air or gas between the membranes lining the brain and spinal cord to sharpen the outlines of various brain structures." In other words, someone drills a hole in your head and slowly, incrementally, replaces the cerebrospinal fluid with some kind of gas so that the liquid doesn't interfere with X-ray pictures of your brain. It is painful and dangerous, and as a result has been replaced by many alternatives, including computerized axial tomography, magnetic resonance imaging, and positron emission tomography. However, the technique is used today, but only in rare instances.
Pneumoencephalography is also known as PEG and was derived from ventriculography, a similar process that involved injecting air through holes drilled into the skull (without draining the liquid surrounding the brain first). Pneumoencephalography was introduced in 1919 by the American neurosurgeon Walter Dandy and was performed extensively until the late 1970s when it was replaced by more sophisticated and modern neuroimaging techniques.
Patients who went through pneumoencephalography procedures would often suffer from headaches and severe vomiting. The procedure also involved spinning the patient around for the purpose of displacing the cerebrospinal fluid around the brain. The headaches and vomiting would continue for between two and three months, which is about the amount of time needed for the brain to restore its protective bubble of cerebrospinal fluid.
Pneumoencephalography was limited in its ability to detect lesions and other brain tissue damage because X-rays are very poor at picking up soft tissues like the brain. In order for any sort of malformation to be found, it would have to physically move other healthy parts of the brain out of their normal place and be visible on the outside surface of the brain.
Emerging question: Elise obviously was not given any information on what was being done to her, and the procedure was done without her consent. How does giving medical treatment work today with people who are unable to give consent?
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/663936/pneumoencephalography
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pneumoencephalography
Pneumoencephalography is also known as PEG and was derived from ventriculography, a similar process that involved injecting air through holes drilled into the skull (without draining the liquid surrounding the brain first). Pneumoencephalography was introduced in 1919 by the American neurosurgeon Walter Dandy and was performed extensively until the late 1970s when it was replaced by more sophisticated and modern neuroimaging techniques.
Patients who went through pneumoencephalography procedures would often suffer from headaches and severe vomiting. The procedure also involved spinning the patient around for the purpose of displacing the cerebrospinal fluid around the brain. The headaches and vomiting would continue for between two and three months, which is about the amount of time needed for the brain to restore its protective bubble of cerebrospinal fluid.
Pneumoencephalography was limited in its ability to detect lesions and other brain tissue damage because X-rays are very poor at picking up soft tissues like the brain. In order for any sort of malformation to be found, it would have to physically move other healthy parts of the brain out of their normal place and be visible on the outside surface of the brain.
Emerging question: Elise obviously was not given any information on what was being done to her, and the procedure was done without her consent. How does giving medical treatment work today with people who are unable to give consent?
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/663936/pneumoencephalography
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pneumoencephalography
Research 2: Alexis Carrel
In multiple instances, but mostly in chapter 7 (which, yes, is in Part 1, but he keeps coming up) the man claiming to be the creator of an "immortal chicken heart" appears in the book. I find him interesting not just because of his findings, but also because he happened to be a racist, neo-nazi eugenicist. "Anyone like that has to have some weird stuff in his history" was my line of thought. So I figured I'd do a little research on him for this section (I hope bullet points are okay).
To start, here's the information provided by the book:
Carrel was a French surgeon at Rockefeller Institute
Carrel grew his "immortal chicken heart" on January 17, 1912
He invented the first technique for suturing (essentially stitch) blood vessels together,
and used his technique to
perform first coronary bypass
develop methods for transplanting organs
Carrel was eugenicist and believer in a "superior race"
He praised Hitler for the "energetic measures"(59) that he took in the direction of preserving the "superior race"
He had mismatched eyes
Carrel wrongly believed that light could kill cell cultures
He was a mystic, and believed in telepathy and clairvoyance
He died awaiting trial for collaborating with Nazis
Other sources:
Carrel was the eldest child of Alexis Carrel-Billard, who was a textile manufacturer
His father died when he was five
As a schoolboy, Carrel's habit of dissecting birds reflected an interest in biology
He conducted experiments in chemistry after being encouraged by and uncle
In 1890, he studied at the University of Lyons
He spent a year as a surgeon in the French army's Chasseurs Alpins
He was attached to hospitals and later a laboratory between 1893 and 1900, with the exception of the year he spent as a surgeon in the French army
In 1900 he received a formal medical degree from University of Lyons
The year of his first successful suturing was 1902
He left Lyons in 1904 to come to the United States, where he would study physiology at the University of Chicago
In 1906 he won appointment as Member of the Rockefeller Institute for Medical Research (now Rockefeller University)
There, Carrel laid a foundation, between 1904 and 1908, for blood vessel and heart surgery, as well as organ transplantation
Carrel succeeded in cultivating cells of warm blooded animals outside of a body
To prove his ability to keep warm blooded animal cells outside of a body, he kept a strain of connective–tissue cells from a chicken heart alive for many years
Carrel's tissue culture has contributed greatly to scientific theory and practice as well, such as
the growing of virus cultures in animal cell and
the preparation of vaccines
In 1912 he received the Nobel Prize for his surgical and cell–culture experiments
Carrel married Anne de la Motte de Meyrie, who was a Roman Catholic widow with one son, in 1913
Carrel had no biologically related children
Carrel was called to service again in 1914 for WWI, where Carrel conducted a hospital and research center
During his service in WWI, with the aid of a chemist, Henry B. Dakin, he developed a method of treating severely infected wounds
Around 1930 Carrel started participating in an experimental program aimed at the cultivation of whole organs and was aided by Charles A. Lindbergh (who had created a sterilizable glass pump for circulating culture fluid through an excised organ)
Carrel, with the help of Lindbergh and his invention, was able to keep such organs as the thyroid gland and kidney alive and, to a certain extent, functioning for days or weeks
This is regarded as a step in the development of the apparatus now used in surgery of the heart and great vessels
Carrel was religious and mystical, which led him to write a fairly famous book, titled Man the Unknown, in 1935
Carrel believed that the "intellectually elite" should be leading people in a direction away from the faults and diseases of the world
Carrel retired from the Rockefeller Institute in 1938
Carrel returned to Paris shortly after the outbreak of World War II, hoping to serve his home country once more
During the German occupation Carrel remained in Paris at the head of the Institute for the Study of Human Problems, which Carrel had created
Carrel was known to accept support from the Germans, which later led to exaggerated charges of collaborationism
Carrel died from heart failure in 1944 in Paris, and was interred in a chapel near his home on the island of St. Gildas
Emerging question: I now know that Carrel made major contributions to science today, but how is he regarded among scientists? My real question is what kind of help did he accept from the Nazis that led him to be thought of as a near equivalent?
http://www.encyclopedia.com/topic/Alexis_Carrel.aspx
http://www.rockefeller.edu/about/awards/nobel/acarrel
To start, here's the information provided by the book:
Carrel was a French surgeon at Rockefeller Institute
Carrel grew his "immortal chicken heart" on January 17, 1912
He invented the first technique for suturing (essentially stitch) blood vessels together,
and used his technique to
perform first coronary bypass
develop methods for transplanting organs
Carrel was eugenicist and believer in a "superior race"
He praised Hitler for the "energetic measures"(59) that he took in the direction of preserving the "superior race"
He had mismatched eyes
Carrel wrongly believed that light could kill cell cultures
He was a mystic, and believed in telepathy and clairvoyance
He died awaiting trial for collaborating with Nazis
Other sources:
Carrel was the eldest child of Alexis Carrel-Billard, who was a textile manufacturer
His father died when he was five
As a schoolboy, Carrel's habit of dissecting birds reflected an interest in biology
He conducted experiments in chemistry after being encouraged by and uncle
In 1890, he studied at the University of Lyons
He spent a year as a surgeon in the French army's Chasseurs Alpins
He was attached to hospitals and later a laboratory between 1893 and 1900, with the exception of the year he spent as a surgeon in the French army
In 1900 he received a formal medical degree from University of Lyons
The year of his first successful suturing was 1902
He left Lyons in 1904 to come to the United States, where he would study physiology at the University of Chicago
In 1906 he won appointment as Member of the Rockefeller Institute for Medical Research (now Rockefeller University)
There, Carrel laid a foundation, between 1904 and 1908, for blood vessel and heart surgery, as well as organ transplantation
Carrel succeeded in cultivating cells of warm blooded animals outside of a body
To prove his ability to keep warm blooded animal cells outside of a body, he kept a strain of connective–tissue cells from a chicken heart alive for many years
Carrel's tissue culture has contributed greatly to scientific theory and practice as well, such as
the growing of virus cultures in animal cell and
the preparation of vaccines
In 1912 he received the Nobel Prize for his surgical and cell–culture experiments
Carrel married Anne de la Motte de Meyrie, who was a Roman Catholic widow with one son, in 1913
Carrel had no biologically related children
Carrel was called to service again in 1914 for WWI, where Carrel conducted a hospital and research center
During his service in WWI, with the aid of a chemist, Henry B. Dakin, he developed a method of treating severely infected wounds
Around 1930 Carrel started participating in an experimental program aimed at the cultivation of whole organs and was aided by Charles A. Lindbergh (who had created a sterilizable glass pump for circulating culture fluid through an excised organ)
Carrel, with the help of Lindbergh and his invention, was able to keep such organs as the thyroid gland and kidney alive and, to a certain extent, functioning for days or weeks
This is regarded as a step in the development of the apparatus now used in surgery of the heart and great vessels
Carrel was religious and mystical, which led him to write a fairly famous book, titled Man the Unknown, in 1935
Carrel believed that the "intellectually elite" should be leading people in a direction away from the faults and diseases of the world
Carrel retired from the Rockefeller Institute in 1938
Carrel returned to Paris shortly after the outbreak of World War II, hoping to serve his home country once more
During the German occupation Carrel remained in Paris at the head of the Institute for the Study of Human Problems, which Carrel had created
Carrel was known to accept support from the Germans, which later led to exaggerated charges of collaborationism
Carrel died from heart failure in 1944 in Paris, and was interred in a chapel near his home on the island of St. Gildas
Emerging question: I now know that Carrel made major contributions to science today, but how is he regarded among scientists? My real question is what kind of help did he accept from the Nazis that led him to be thought of as a near equivalent?
http://www.encyclopedia.com/topic/Alexis_Carrel.aspx
http://www.rockefeller.edu/about/awards/nobel/acarrel
Research 1: Painkillers
In chapter 8 on page 66, Henrietta is given multiple painkillers to ease her pain, but very few work. As I have limited knowledge of painkillers and what they do, I decided that a good idea for research would be how a few of these painkillers work.
Demerol is also known as meperidine, and is an opioid/narcotic pain medication. It is used for moderate to severe short term pain. Demerol acts on the central nervous system in a way similar to morphine by increasing the amount of the neurotransmitter serotonin. It is important to not take demerol with another medication called monoamine oxidase inhibitor, as both of them increase serotonin. Increased serotonin levels affect behavior, body temperature, and blood pressure, as well as lead to a condition called Serotonin Syndrome, which can cause death. Side effects of demerol (by itself) include most commonly lightheadedness, dizziness, sedation, nausea, vomiting, and sweating, but also include mood changes, weakness, headache, agitation, tremor, twitching, convulsions, hallucination, disorientation, confusion, delirium, dry mouth, constipation, biliary (gallbladder, bile ducts, or bile) tract spasm, flushed face, tachycardia or bradycardia (increased or decreased heart rate), palpitation, hypo-tension (lowered blood pressure), syncope (partial loss of consciousness), or urinary retention.
Sources for Demerol:
http://www.rxlist.com/demerol-drug.htm
http://www.webmd.com/drugs/2/drug-4334-5194/demerol/meperidinetablet-oral/details/list-interaction-details/dmid-142/dmtitle-selected%20narcotics%20dextromethorphan-maois/intrtype-drug
http://www.pdrhealth.com/drugs/demerol
Dromoran is also known as levophanol tartrate, and is a very potent opiate. As a painkiller, it again works similarly to morphine, altering the way the transmission and perception of pain. As the drug is so potent, the ratio of strength between morphine and dromoran is about 1:15. Again, it is dangerous to take monoamine oxidase inhibitor with this medication, for the same reason as demerol. Side effects include abdominal pain, dry mouth, sweating, Cardiovascular System: cardiac arrest, shock, hypo-tension, bradycardia or tachycardia, palpitations, extrasystoles (extra heartbeat), nausea, vomiting, dyspepsia (indigestion), biliary tract spasm, coma, suicide attempt, convulsions, depression, dizziness, confusion, lethargy, abnormal dreams, abnormal thinking, nervousness, drug withdrawal, hypokinesia (reduced movement), dyskinesia (abnormal movement), hyperkinesia (increased movement), personality disorder, amnesia, insomnia, apnea (suspension of breathing, often for brief moments), cyanosis (skin discoloration due to low oxygen), hypoventilation, pruritus (itching), urticaria (hives), rash, injection site reaction, abnormal vision, pupillary (eye) disorder, diplopia (double vision), kidney failure, urinary retention, or difficulty urinating.
Sources for Dromoran:
http://www.rxlist.com/levo-dromoran-drug/side-effects-interactions.htm
http://www.drugs.com/pro/levo-dromoran.html
Emerging question: In both instances, the side effects took up more than 2/3rds of the description! And many other medications have similar lists of side effects! How can people feel safe taking any medication that has that long of a list? Is it ignorance, am I overestimating the potential that exists for these side effects, or the one benefit outweighs the possible disadvantages? Or is it something else entirely? Either way, how can these side effect lists be shortened?
Demerol is also known as meperidine, and is an opioid/narcotic pain medication. It is used for moderate to severe short term pain. Demerol acts on the central nervous system in a way similar to morphine by increasing the amount of the neurotransmitter serotonin. It is important to not take demerol with another medication called monoamine oxidase inhibitor, as both of them increase serotonin. Increased serotonin levels affect behavior, body temperature, and blood pressure, as well as lead to a condition called Serotonin Syndrome, which can cause death. Side effects of demerol (by itself) include most commonly lightheadedness, dizziness, sedation, nausea, vomiting, and sweating, but also include mood changes, weakness, headache, agitation, tremor, twitching, convulsions, hallucination, disorientation, confusion, delirium, dry mouth, constipation, biliary (gallbladder, bile ducts, or bile) tract spasm, flushed face, tachycardia or bradycardia (increased or decreased heart rate), palpitation, hypo-tension (lowered blood pressure), syncope (partial loss of consciousness), or urinary retention.
Sources for Demerol:
http://www.rxlist.com/demerol-drug.htm
http://www.webmd.com/drugs/2/drug-4334-5194/demerol/meperidinetablet-oral/details/list-interaction-details/dmid-142/dmtitle-selected%20narcotics%20dextromethorphan-maois/intrtype-drug
http://www.pdrhealth.com/drugs/demerol
Dromoran is also known as levophanol tartrate, and is a very potent opiate. As a painkiller, it again works similarly to morphine, altering the way the transmission and perception of pain. As the drug is so potent, the ratio of strength between morphine and dromoran is about 1:15. Again, it is dangerous to take monoamine oxidase inhibitor with this medication, for the same reason as demerol. Side effects include abdominal pain, dry mouth, sweating, Cardiovascular System: cardiac arrest, shock, hypo-tension, bradycardia or tachycardia, palpitations, extrasystoles (extra heartbeat), nausea, vomiting, dyspepsia (indigestion), biliary tract spasm, coma, suicide attempt, convulsions, depression, dizziness, confusion, lethargy, abnormal dreams, abnormal thinking, nervousness, drug withdrawal, hypokinesia (reduced movement), dyskinesia (abnormal movement), hyperkinesia (increased movement), personality disorder, amnesia, insomnia, apnea (suspension of breathing, often for brief moments), cyanosis (skin discoloration due to low oxygen), hypoventilation, pruritus (itching), urticaria (hives), rash, injection site reaction, abnormal vision, pupillary (eye) disorder, diplopia (double vision), kidney failure, urinary retention, or difficulty urinating.
Sources for Dromoran:
http://www.rxlist.com/levo-dromoran-drug/side-effects-interactions.htm
http://www.drugs.com/pro/levo-dromoran.html
Emerging question: In both instances, the side effects took up more than 2/3rds of the description! And many other medications have similar lists of side effects! How can people feel safe taking any medication that has that long of a list? Is it ignorance, am I overestimating the potential that exists for these side effects, or the one benefit outweighs the possible disadvantages? Or is it something else entirely? Either way, how can these side effect lists be shortened?